International Journal for Clinical Anatomy and Research

Recent advancements in neurobiology have shifted the understanding of addiction and reward-processing disorders from purely behavioral or genetic frameworks toward an epigenetic paradigm. This systematic review synthesizes current research on the epigenetic and transgenerational reprogramming of the brain’s reward system, specifically focusing on how environmental stressors, substance exposure, and nutritional factors alter gene expression without modifying the underlying DNA sequence. The review highlights critical mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and non-coding RNA regulation within the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. Evidence from both animal models and longitudinal human studies suggests that these molecular "scars" can be inherited across generations, predisposing offspring to heightened vulnerability to substance use disorders (SUDs) and altered hedonic responses. Central to this phenomenon is the reprogramming of the germline, which facilitates the transmission of paternal and maternal environmental experiences to subsequent generations. Bridging the gap between molecular biology and clinical practice, this paper introduces Clinical Counseling Guidelines designed for mental health professionals. These guidelines emphasize the importance of "epigenetic literacy" in trauma-informed care, advocating for interventions that leverage neuroplasticity to reverse adverse epigenetic marking. Key recommendations include personalized lifestyle modifications, targeted mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and family-centered psychoeducation that addresses the hereditary nature of reward system dysregulation. By integrating transgenerational perspectives into counseling, clinicians can provide more comprehensive support that breaks the cycle of inherited neurobiological vulnerability.

Background: The persistent trigeminal artery (PTA) is the most common among the persistent embryonic carotid-basilar anastomoses. While typically asymptomatic, its presence significantly alters intracranial hemodynamics and poses unique challenges during neurovascular interventions and skull-base surgeries. This study investigates the morphological characteristics and clinical relevance of PTA discovered during routine cadaveric dissection. Materials and Methods: A comprehensive dissection of 40 formal-fixed human cadaveric heads was conducted at the Department of Anatomy. The cavernous and petrous segments of the internal carotid artery (ICA) were meticulously exposed to identify any anomalous communications with the vertebrobasilar system. Results: A unilateral persistent trigeminal artery was identified in one male cadaver (2.5% incidence). The artery originated from the posterolateral aspect of the cavernous segment of the ICA. It followed a lateral course to the abducens nerve, pierced the dura mater near the trigeminal ganglion, and joined the superior third of the basilar artery between the origins of the superior cerebellar and anterior inferior cerebellar arteries. Notably, the ipsilateral vertebral and proximal basilar arteries were found to be hypoplastic, indicating a fetal-type circulation where the PTA served as the primary blood supply to the posterior fossa. Conclusion: Knowledge of PTA is vital for neurosurgeons and interventional radiologists. Its proximity to the trigeminal nerve may explain cases of trigeminal neuralgia, while its role in posterior circulation must be recognized to avoid catastrophic ischemia during carotid endarterectomy or endovascular procedures. This study reinforces the necessity of vascular imaging prior to complex transsphenoidal surgeries.